Washington DC’s lead in tap water crisis, 2000 to 2004

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1993) – “Fluoridation Census” Washington DC water is fluoridated, using hydrofluorosilicic acid.
American Chemical Society – Environmental Science and Technology (2004) – “Plumbing the Depths of D.C.’s Drinking Water Crisis” – Lead concentrations of: a) Up to 45,000 μg/L after modifying disinfection from chlorine to chloramine when connecting copper plumbing to a lead service line, and b) Lead concentrations to 16,000 μg/L from the lead in brass plumbing fittings when exposed to chloramine.
Environmental Research (2011) – “Association between children’s blood lead levels, lead service lines, and water disinfection, Washington, DC, 1998-2006” – Children in homes with lead service lines had the highest blood lead levels after changing disinfection chemical to chloramine. Children in homes with partially replaced lead service lines are 3 times as likely to have blood lead levels above 10 μg/dL.
Environmental Sciences and Technology (2013) – “Fetal death and reduced birth rates associated with exposure to lead-contaminated drinking water” – Blood lead level increase of 5 μg/dL, which was once considered low, correlates with increased water lead level, incidence of miscarriages, and fetal death.